Diseases have existed for as long as mankind, which means that at all times people needed the help of a knowledgeable specialist. Ancient medicine developed gradually and went a long way, full of big mistakes and timid trials, sometimes based only on religion. Only a few of the mass of ancient people were able to wrest their consciousness from the clutches of ignorance and give mankind great discoveries in the field of healing, described in treatises, encyclopedias, papyri.
Medicine of Ancient Egypt
Ancient Egyptian medicine became the cradle of knowledge for the doctors of Ancient Rome, Africa and the Middle East, but its origins lead to Mesopotamia, which already had its own practitioners in 4000 BC. Ancient medicine in Egypt combined religious beliefs and observations of the human body. Imgotep (2630-2611 BC) is considered the first physician and founder, although Egyptologists have only recently provedthe reality of his existence: for many centuries he was considered a fictional god. This man was a genius of his time, like Leonardo da Vinci in the Middle Ages. The Egyptians gained basic knowledge about the structure of man through the embalming of the dead - even then they knew that the heart and brain are the most important organs.
All diseases in ancient Egyptian medicine were divided into two camps: natural and demonic (supernatural). The first category included diseases associated with injuries, poor nutrition and poor quality water, intestinal parasites or adverse weather conditions. Close attention was paid to body hygiene: by law, each person was required to undergo a course of washing the digestive system every three months (enemas, emetics and laxatives).
Supernatural causes were believed to be possessions by evil spirits, demons and the intervention of the gods: the methods of exorcism among the lower strata of the population were in great demand and existed thanks to the priests. Various recipes with bitter herbs were also used - it was believed that this drives away spirits. In total, there were about 700 ancient recipes in service with physicians, and almost all of them were of natural origin:
- vegetable: onions, dates and grapes, pomegranate, poppy, lotus;
- mineral: sulfur, clay, lead, s altpeter and antimony;
- parts of animals: tails, ears, grated bones and tendons, glands, sometimes insects were used.
Even then, the healing properties of wormwood and castor were knownoil, flaxseed and aloe.
Papyri, inscriptions on pyramids and sarcophagi, mummies of people and animals are considered the main sources for the study of ancient medicine in Egypt. Several papyri on medicine have survived to this day in their original state:
- The Brugsch Papyrus is the oldest manuscript on pediatrics. Includes a teaching about the he alth of children, women and methods of treating their diseases.
- Papyrus Ebers - talks about diseases of various organs, but at the same time contains many examples of the use of prayers and conspiracies (more than 900 recipes for diseases of the digestive system, respiratory and vascular systems, diseases of the eyes and ears). This scientific work has long been considered a medical encyclopedia of ancient healers.
- Kahunsky papyrus – includes a treatise on gynecology and veterinary medicine, while, unlike other scrolls, it practically does not contain religious overtones.
- Smith Papyrus - Imgotep is considered its author. It describes 48 clinical cases of traumatology. Information varies from symptoms and research methods to treatment recommendations.
In the ancient medicine of Egypt, the first scalpels and tweezers, uterine speculums and catheters were used. This speaks of the high level and professionalism of surgeons, even if they were inferior in skill to Indian doctors.
Basic Medicine of India
Indian medicine of ancient times relied on two authoritative sources: the code of laws of Manu and the science of Ayurveda, which originates from the Vedas - the oldest sacred texts in Sanskrit. Mostan accurate and complete retelling on paper was written by the Indian physician Sushruta. It describes the causes of diseases (an imbalance of the three doshas and gunas that make up the human body), recommendations for the treatment of more than 150 ailments of a different nature, in addition, about 780 medicinal herbs and plants are described, and information on their use is provided.
During the diagnostics, special attention was paid to the structure of a person: height and weight, age and character, place of residence, field of activity. Indian healers considered it their duty not to treat the disease, but to eradicate the causes of its occurrence, which puts them at the top of the medical Olympus. At the same time, surgical knowledge was far from perfect, despite successful operations to remove gallstones, caesarean sections and rhinoplasty (which was in demand due to one of the punishments - cutting off the nose and ears). About 200 surgical instruments were inherited by modern specialists from Indian healers.
Indian traditional medicine divided all remedies according to their effects on the body:
- emetics and laxatives;
- exciting and soothing;
- diaphoretic;
- stimulating digestion;
- narcotic (used as an anesthetic in surgery).
The anatomical knowledge of doctors was not sufficiently developed, but at the same time, doctors divided the human body into 500 muscles, 24 nerves, 300 bones and 40 leading vessels, which, in turn, were divided into 700 branches, 107 articular joints andover 900 links. A lot of attention was also paid to the mental state of patients - Ayurveda believed that most of all diseases come from the malfunctioning of the nervous system. Such extensive knowledge - as for the ancient medicine of India - made the healers of this country very popular outside of it.
The development of medicine in ancient China
Medicine of the Ancient East originated in the fourth century BC, one of the first treatises on diseases is Huangdi Nei-jing, and Huangdi is the name of the founder of the Chinese trend in medicine. The Chinese, as well as the Indians, believed that a person consists of five primary elements, the imbalance of which leads to various diseases, this was described in great detail in the Nei Jing, which was rewritten by Wang Bing in the 8th century.
Zhang Zhong Jing is a Chinese doctor, the author of the treatise Shan han za bing lun, which tells about the methods of treating fevers of various types, and Hua Tuo is a surgeon who began using sutures in abdominal operations and anesthesia with opium, aconite and hemp.
For the treatment of various diseases, doctors already used camphor, garlic, ginger and lemongrass, from mineral rocks sulfur and mercury, magnesia and antimony were especially welcome. But in the first place, of course, was ginseng - this root was idolized and many different preparations were made on its basis.
Chinese doctors were especially proud of pulse diagnostics: the predominance of a rapid pulse indicated an overly active nervous system, and a weak and intermittent,on the contrary, testified to its insufficient activity. Chinese doctors distinguished more than 20 types of pulses. They came to the conclusion that every organ and every process in the body has its own expression in the pulse, and by changing the latter at several points, one can not only determine a person’s illness, but also predict its outcome. Wang-Shu-He, who wrote the "Treatise on the Pulse", described all this in great detail.
Also, China is the birthplace of spot cautery and acupuncture. Historical texts tell of the healers Bian-chio and Fu Wen, the authors of treatises on these methods. In their writings, they describe several hundred biologically active points on the human body, by influencing which, you can completely cure any disease.
The only weak link in China's ancient medicine is surgery. In the Celestial Empire, methods of treating fractures were practically not used (the affected area was simply placed between two wooden planks), bloodletting and amputation of limbs were not practiced.
Father of medicine
This is considered to be Hippocrates (Greek Hippocratis), an ancient Greek doctor in the 17th generation, who lived in 460 BC and laid the foundation for the development of medicine in Ancient Rome. The famous promise of physicians before taking office - the "Hippocratic oath" - is his brainchild. The father of the great healer was Heraclid, also an outstanding scientist, and the mother of Fenaret was a midwife. Parents did everything so that at the age of twenty their son had the glory of a good doctor, and also received initiation into the priests, without which there would be no quality practice in the field of medicine.out of the question.
Hippocrates traveled to many countries of the East in search of various successful methods of treatment, and when he returned home, he founded the first medical school, putting science at the forefront, not religion.
The creative heritage of this genius is so huge that the permanent publisher of his works, Charterius, spent forty (!) years printing it. More than a hundred of his writings are collected in a single "Hippocratic collection", and his "Aphorisms" are still in great demand.
The most famous doctors of the old world
Many of the greatest physicians of ancient medicine contributed something of their own to this science, giving their ancestors ideas for reflection, observation and research.
1. Dioscorides, ancient Greek physician of the 50th century A. D. e., author of the treatise Medicinal Substances, which was the leading textbook on pharmacology until the 16th century.
2. Claudius Galen - ancient Roman naturalist, author of numerous works on medicinal plants, methods of their use and preparation of preparations from them. All water and alcohol infusions, decoctions and various extracts from plants still bear the name "galenic". It was he who started testing on animals.
3. Harun al-Rashid is an Arab ruler who was the first to build a public hospital in Baghdad.
4. Paracelsus (1493-1541) was a Swiss physician who is considered the founder of modern chemical medicine. He was critical of Galen and all ancient medicine in general, considering it ineffective.
5. Li Shizhen - an expert in the field of ancient medicineVostoka, Chinese physician of the 16th century, author of Fundamentals of Pharmacology. The work, consisting of 52 volumes, describes about 2000 drugs, mostly of plant origin. The author strongly opposed the use of mercury-based tablets.
6. Abu Bakr Muhammad al-Razi (865-925) - Persian scientist, naturalist, he is considered a pioneer in the field of psychiatry and psychology. The authorship of this outstanding doctor belongs to the famous "Al-Khawi" - a comprehensive book on medicine, revealing to the world the basics of ophthalmology, gynecology and obstetrics. Razi proved that temperature is the body's response to disease.
7. Avicenna (Ibn Sina) is a genius of his time. Originally from Uzbekistan, the author of the "Canon of Medical Science" - an encyclopedia, according to which other healers studied medical art for several hundred years. He believed that any disease can be cured by proper nutrition and a moderate lifestyle.
8. Asklepiades of Bithonia was a Greek physician who lived in the 1st century BC. The founder of physiotherapy (physical education, massage) and dietology, he called on his contemporaries and descendants to maintain a balance between the he alth of the body and the spirit. He took his first steps in molecular medicine, which for that time was something fantastic.
9. Sun Simiao is a Chinese physician of the Tian Dynasty who wrote a 30-volume work. "The King of Medicines" - this was the name of this genius, who made a significant contribution to the development of medical science. Pointed out the importance of nutrition and the right combination of products. The invention of gunpowder is also hismerit.
How and what was treated in ancient times
The medicine of the ancient world, despite all the genius of famous healers, was pretty awesome. However, judge for yourself. Here are just a few interesting facts about the treatments:
1. The method of scaring away and averting the disease was actively practiced in Ancient Babylon: in order for the disease to leave a person, they fed him and gave him rare rubbish to drink, spat on him and gave cuffs. Such "treatment" often led to new diseases (which is no wonder).
2. In Egypt, under King Hammurabi, medicine was a rather dangerous business, since one of the king's laws promised death to the healer if his patient died on the operating table. Therefore, spells and prayers were used more often, which were described on 40 clay tablets.
3. Egyptian priests left the patient to sleep in the temple, in a dream a deity was supposed to appear to him and announce the method of treatment, as well as the sin for which he was punished with illness.
4. No less impressive was the surgery of Ancient Greece. Here they staged whole performances from operations in which the disguised doctor portrayed the god of medicine Asclepius. Sometimes in the course of the action, patients died - more from long high-flown tirades than from insufficient skill of the unfortunate doctor.
5. A widespread epilepsy was treated with Datura, henbane, and wormwood.
6. In Egypt and Mesopotamia, holes were often drilled in the skull (sometimes even several) to save the patient from a migraine caused by an evil spirit.
7. Tuberculosis was treated with drugs made from the lungs of foxes and snake meat,soaked in opium.
8. Theriac (a drink of 70 ingredients) and the philosopher's stone were considered a panacea for all diseases.
Middle Ages: The decline of medicine
The most significant asset of medicine in the Middle Ages was the introduction of a compulsory license for healing: this law was first adopted by the king of Sicily, Roger II, and later picked up by England, forming in the 15th century the Guild of Surgeons and Barbers (who often performed bloodletting of the sick) and France with Saint Como College. Teachings about infectious diseases and he alth care methods began to clearly emerge and take shape. Guy de Chauliac, a village surgeon of the 14th century, actively promoted the prevention of "charlatans" in the treatment of people, proposed new methods in working with fractures (traction with a load, the use of a sling-like bandage, suturing the edges of open wounds).
In the Middle Ages, constant hunger, crop failures were common, which forced people to eat spoiled food, while the "cult of a clean body" was out of favor. These two factors contributed to the development of infectious diseases: fever, plague and smallpox, tuberculosis and leprosy. The indestructible faith in the healing properties of "holy relics" and witchcraft (while the knowledge of contemporary healers was completely denied) provoked an even greater development of diseases that they tried to treat with processions and sermons. The death rate was several times higher than the birth rate, and life expectancy rarely exceeded thirty years.
The influence of religion on medicine
In China and India, belief in gods did not particularly interfere with developmentmedical affairs: progress was based on natural observations of a person, the influence of plants on his condition, methods of active analytical experiments were popular. In European countries, on the contrary, superstition, fear of God's wrath cut down at the root all attempts of scientists and doctors to save people from ignorance.
Church persecution, curses and campaigns against heresy were of gigantic proportions: any scientist who tried to speak out in favor of reason and against divine will regarding healing was subjected to severe torture and various types of execution (auto-da-fe was widespread) - to intimidate ordinary people. The study of human anatomy was considered a deadly sin, for which execution was due.
Also a huge minus was the scholastic method of treatment and teaching in rare medical schools: all theses had to be unconditionally taken on faith, sometimes without solid ground, and the steady denial of the experience gained and the inability to apply logic in practice were reduced to " no" many achievements of the geniuses of our time.
Where were doctors trained in ancient times?
The first medical schools in China appeared only in the 6th century AD, before that the art of healing was transmitted only from teacher to student orally. The state-level school first opened in 1027 with Wang Wei-yi as its leading teacher.
In India, the method of oral transmission from teacher to student persisted until the 18th century, while the selection criteria were extremely strict: the healer had to be a modela he althy lifestyle and a high level of intelligence, to know biology and chemistry perfectly, to be perfectly versed in medicinal plants and methods of preparing potions, to be an example to follow. Cleanliness and tidiness came first.
In ancient Egypt, priests taught healing in temples, and corporal punishment was often used for negligent students. In parallel with medicine, calligraphy and rhetoric were taught, and each trained doctor belonged to a special caste and temple, which received a fee for treating the patient in the future.
Mass education in medicine unfolded on a large scale in ancient Greece and was divided into two branches:
1. Croton School of Medicine. Her main idea was the following thesis: he alth is a balance of opposites, and the disease should be treated with the opposite in essence (bitter - sweet, cold - warm). One of the students of this school was Akmeon, who opened the auditory canal and optic nerves to the world.
2. Knidos school. Her basic knowledge was similar to the teachings of Ayurveda: the physical body is made up of several elements, the imbalance of which leads to illness. This school continued to improve the developments of Egyptian healers, so the doctrine of the symptoms of the disease and diagnosis was formed. Euryphon, a student of this school, was a contemporary of Hippocrates.
Doctor's Oath
For the first time, the oath was written down on paper in the 3rd century BC by Hippocrates, and before that, it was passed down orally from generation to generation for quite some time. It is believed that Asclepius was the first to utter it.
Modern oathHippocrates is already far from the original: her words have changed many times depending on time and nationality, the last time she was heavily distorted in 1848, when a new version of the speech was announced in Geneva. Almost half of the text was cut out:
- on a promise to never have abortions or castration procedures;
- under no circumstances do euthanasia;
- a promise to never have an intimate relationship with a patient;
- under no circumstances lose your dignity, refraining from illegal actions;
- give part of your income for life to a teacher or school that trained a doctor in medicine.
From these points you can see how much modern medicine has lowered the moral and ethical bar of a doctor as a highly spiritual person, leaving only basic functions - helping the suffering.
